(For much more on Machiavelli the political philosopher, see my big entry Il Principe Fiorentine, in the Significant Others section, to be posted later.)
In transforming exceptional individuals into legends, history is sometimes flattering and sometimes unkind. In such cases we are wont to say: “Move out of the way, individual, for your legend is riding an unstoppable train.” But in some cases our legend is clothed in nothing worse than a faulty conventional wisdom, which can easily be corrected without inflicting any significant damage to the legend itself. Such is the case of the great political thinker Niccolò Machiavelli.
Now, what is he doing in the fairly idealistic Wishful Thinking section? It is almost obvious that he must fail the entrance test. His forte, as most people know, is utterly amoral Realpolitik, and his most famous advice to the Princes (Il Principe: Chapter XVIII, In What Way Princes Must Keep Faith) is not to keep faith:
“But it is necessary to be able to disguise this character well and to be a great feigner and dissembler; and men are so simple and so ready to obey the present necessities, that the one who deceives will always find those who allow themselves to be deceived… Alexander VI did nothing else but deceive men… but no man was ever more able to give assurances, or affirmed things with stronger oaths, and no man observed them less; but he always succeeded in his deceptions as he knew well this aspect of things. It is not necessary to have all these [virtues], but it is very necessary for a prince to seem to have them.”
There is ostensibly no place for such unabashed political cynicism anywhere in the vicinity of the search for the ideal, and yet I am satisfied with including Machiavelli among my distinguished wishful thinkers as I see his political cynicism as nothing short of a bitterly disappointed political idealism. Come to think of it, only a bitterly disappointed idealist can rise to such heights of cynicism as Machiavelli does.
It is true that we are judging Machiavelli primarily by Il Principe. But in his Discorsi Sopra La Prima Deca Di Tito Livio, written a few years later, he shows us his different, utopian side, as if asking the posterity not to judge him by Il Principe alone.
Discorsi offers us incontrovertible proof that there is a large moral dimension to Machiavelli, the assumed amoralist. There are certain political-moral values which he holds dear: national independence and liberty above all, security, and constitutional guarantees of law over whim. The best constitutions must distribute rights not only among the rich and powerful, but also give a substantial share to the poor and powerless, or else, political instability will necessarily ensue. Surprisingly to those who do not know it, Machiavelli must be given the credit for being the first political thinker ever to formulate the doctrine of checks and balances. Princes, nobles, and people must all have their part in the Constitution: “Then these three powers will keep each other reciprocally in check.”
But to achieve the noblest ends even a saint has to have the means to be successful and success cannot come without power. It is at this point that Machiavelli’s idealism becomes frustrated, as he realizes the corrupting effect of power on even the best of people (memento Aristoteli!). This is where he becomes amoral, advises the Princes to dissimulate, to be unscrupulous regarding their means, for the best means are those that help you achieve your ends, provided of course that the ends are moral and serving public interest, which is what he advocates in the first place. But is it possible for an honest man, desirous of the public good, to engage in immoral means in order to achieve the moral ends? Or will the ends be inevitably corrupted by the means?!
Here is the beginning of that famous disconnect between moral ends and immoral means. Here is the source of Machiavelli’s idealistic frustration…
“…And the devil, taking him up into an high mountain, shewed unto him all the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time. And the devil said unto him, All this power will I give thee and the glory of them, for that is delivered unto me; and to whomsoever I will give it. If thou therefore wilt worship me (the means), all shall be thine (the ends).” [Luke 4:5-7.]
…Well, at least, we know what Jesus said to that…
In transforming exceptional individuals into legends, history is sometimes flattering and sometimes unkind. In such cases we are wont to say: “Move out of the way, individual, for your legend is riding an unstoppable train.” But in some cases our legend is clothed in nothing worse than a faulty conventional wisdom, which can easily be corrected without inflicting any significant damage to the legend itself. Such is the case of the great political thinker Niccolò Machiavelli.
Now, what is he doing in the fairly idealistic Wishful Thinking section? It is almost obvious that he must fail the entrance test. His forte, as most people know, is utterly amoral Realpolitik, and his most famous advice to the Princes (Il Principe: Chapter XVIII, In What Way Princes Must Keep Faith) is not to keep faith:
“But it is necessary to be able to disguise this character well and to be a great feigner and dissembler; and men are so simple and so ready to obey the present necessities, that the one who deceives will always find those who allow themselves to be deceived… Alexander VI did nothing else but deceive men… but no man was ever more able to give assurances, or affirmed things with stronger oaths, and no man observed them less; but he always succeeded in his deceptions as he knew well this aspect of things. It is not necessary to have all these [virtues], but it is very necessary for a prince to seem to have them.”
There is ostensibly no place for such unabashed political cynicism anywhere in the vicinity of the search for the ideal, and yet I am satisfied with including Machiavelli among my distinguished wishful thinkers as I see his political cynicism as nothing short of a bitterly disappointed political idealism. Come to think of it, only a bitterly disappointed idealist can rise to such heights of cynicism as Machiavelli does.
It is true that we are judging Machiavelli primarily by Il Principe. But in his Discorsi Sopra La Prima Deca Di Tito Livio, written a few years later, he shows us his different, utopian side, as if asking the posterity not to judge him by Il Principe alone.
Discorsi offers us incontrovertible proof that there is a large moral dimension to Machiavelli, the assumed amoralist. There are certain political-moral values which he holds dear: national independence and liberty above all, security, and constitutional guarantees of law over whim. The best constitutions must distribute rights not only among the rich and powerful, but also give a substantial share to the poor and powerless, or else, political instability will necessarily ensue. Surprisingly to those who do not know it, Machiavelli must be given the credit for being the first political thinker ever to formulate the doctrine of checks and balances. Princes, nobles, and people must all have their part in the Constitution: “Then these three powers will keep each other reciprocally in check.”
But to achieve the noblest ends even a saint has to have the means to be successful and success cannot come without power. It is at this point that Machiavelli’s idealism becomes frustrated, as he realizes the corrupting effect of power on even the best of people (memento Aristoteli!). This is where he becomes amoral, advises the Princes to dissimulate, to be unscrupulous regarding their means, for the best means are those that help you achieve your ends, provided of course that the ends are moral and serving public interest, which is what he advocates in the first place. But is it possible for an honest man, desirous of the public good, to engage in immoral means in order to achieve the moral ends? Or will the ends be inevitably corrupted by the means?!
Here is the beginning of that famous disconnect between moral ends and immoral means. Here is the source of Machiavelli’s idealistic frustration…
“…And the devil, taking him up into an high mountain, shewed unto him all the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time. And the devil said unto him, All this power will I give thee and the glory of them, for that is delivered unto me; and to whomsoever I will give it. If thou therefore wilt worship me (the means), all shall be thine (the ends).” [Luke 4:5-7.]
…Well, at least, we know what Jesus said to that…
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